As you read this issue, remember that words alone do not effect change. Mahatma Gandhi believed that, "We must be the change we want to see in the world." Essentially, it is the responsibility of each citizen to actively do what he and she can to protect our shared environment for the benefit of our collective health. This responsibility falls most heavily on today's youth.

World Information Transfer's Summer Interns have produced the July 2007 Ecology Enquirer. Through their articles, WIT's Interns aim to inform the public not only of current environmental health problems but also about effective solutions which address the interlinkages between human health and a changing natural environment.

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

SOLUTIONS:

  • Agricultural Technology Aid to Africa
  • Water for Life: Providing sub-Saharan Africa with Clean Water
  • Reforming Energy Industrialization in Developing Countries
  • An Innovative Response to Energy Needs
  • The Green Apple


    • PROBLEMS:

  • Health Disparities in the Pacific Islands: Hepatitis B
  • Issues Affecting Indigenous Health
  • Arctic Thaw
  • International Standard Versus Country's Standard on Environmental Sustainability
  • Acid Rain in Pakistan and India
  • Darfur: A Crisis in a Vulnerable Environment
    •

    AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY AID TO AFRICA
    By: Hillary Krieger

    Historically, Africa has endured conflict over precious water resources and is currently engaged in struggle for control over water systems. Some analysts attribute the conflict in Darfur, Sudan to desertification in an area where previously, water was plentiful and sufficient to provide for the population. Measures have needed to be taken to prevent large-scale starvation of the people who are greatly affected by the altered environment in which they now find themselves.



    Israel, in order to share technology, designated a special office for the improvement of agricultural practices in developing countries. Israel has made great strides in agricultural technology and methodology and also struggles with limited water resources. The country innovated ground-breaking technologies to ration water and to use techniques such as desalination and recycling of waste water to make better use of their limited water supply. Mashav, the Israel Center for International Cooperation, organizes training programs in agriculture, farming and technology. In conjunction with other actors, Mashav's water irrigation program improves the lives of those in developing areas of the world. Mashav focuses on Israel's technological abilities offering developing countries assistance in the areas of water resource management, irrigation, desert agriculture and combating desertification. One of Mashav's most recent accomplishments has been in the African country of Niger, where a lack of water resources creates a dilemma for the agrarian based economy.

    Niger took recent steps to adapt those working in agriculture to make better use of their limited resources. In March of 2007, the Executive Governor of Niger State and the International Agricultural Development Cooperation (Mashav) in Israel reached an important agreement establishing an agricultural training program for farmers in Niger to efficiently use limited water resources. Niger chose to partner with Israel as they both have an arid climate. In recent years, many countries in Africa have suffered the devastating effects of severe drought. Niger chose to begin to conquer their agricultural problems due to the effects on the economy as well as the people of Niger.

    The program consists of a series of workshops aimed at educating agronomists, veterinarians, researchers, extension officers, and farmers in sustainable development and field studies on local crops and livestock. Beginning in 2005, the government of Niger expanded their research and training facilities for rural development. During the spring of 2007, Israel sent agricultural and livestock experts to teach the local people diverse methods of water conservation to increase productivity. At the signing of the agreement, Executive Governor Kure of Niger commented, "I hope that whatever we do together will be of real benefit to our people". It is hoped that some of the desired agricultural training programs will improve the health and well-being of the people of Niger.
    Currently, Israel is working to expand this program worldwide. Israel has agricultural agreements with China and Japan for the training of Africans and Palestinians in the area of live-stock and farming practices. A pact was recently established between Israel, Jordon, Egypt and the Palestinian Authority on behalf of the Palestinian people. Each country co-chairs one of five committees for improving production of low-cost fodder, productivity of small ruminants, saline water for irrigation, dry-land agriculture and post-harvest technology and marketing. Israel also has continuing research projects on various topics in agriculture and farming with Germany, the Netherlands and the Palestinians on market-gardening, urban-growth and sustainable income generation in many African countries.

    These agreements are crucial in order to improve the lives of Africans whose incomes rely heavily on their agricultural output. Countries such as Israel, who have made great advancements in agricultural technology, are marketing this, by way of education, to the people who need the techniques merely to feed their families. Agricultural training programs are one way in which the world can combat severe poverty and starvation in developing countries.

    Author's Statement: I am a rising senior studying political science and history at Stern College, Yeshiva University. Interning at WIT has opened my eyes to the relevance of environmental and health issues on the broader scale of the international forum. I chose this topic because it illustrates the ways in which health and the environment can be improved through the actions of two sovereign states.~ Hillary Krieger

    Sources:

    http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA
    http://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/ROCKwater/Agriculture%20and%20Irrigation/taking%20a%20stand.html

    WATER for LIFE: PROVIDING SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA with CLEAN WATER
    By: Divai A. Brown

    The seventh of nine United Nations Millennium Development Goals is to ensure environmental sustainability. The topic's broad nature provides an opportunity for various natural resources to be identified, assessed and rectified if necessary. While issues such as famine, disease and violence plague many of the developing nations for which ensuring environmental sustainability is vital, one of the most crucial dilemmas presently facing developing nations, particularly the sub-Saharan Africa region, is the lack of access to clean water. In much of this region, women and children walk nearly six miles daily to access clean water. While rapid urbanization in the region has increased pressure on the demand for clean water, irrigation accounts for over 70 % of fresh water use in sub-Saharan Africa.



    The scarcity of clean water in sub-Saharan Africa was acknowledged on March 22, 2006, a date officially designated as World Water Day by the United Nations, with the intention of bringing the world's water issues to the political and social forefront. Subsequently, new initiatives are being introduced into sub-Saharan Africa that are reducing the tension on current clean water sources, while providing additional alternatives for a more permanent clean water supply. Several prominent initiatives, including The Water for the Poor Initiative, managed by USAID and the West African Water Initiative (WAWI) are presently employing cost effective sanitation methods that make clean water a reality for even the most impoverished citizens. WAWI has committed to its agenda four goals: safe water and sanitation, disease reduction, water management; and effective partnership, which serve as WAWI's principal platforms for success. Through the execution of these goals, WAWI is working towards ensuring that clean water is provided in a sustainable manner. The progressive method that WAWI has implemented is generating new and innovative methods for water purification as well as its accessibility.

    Madagascar is in the beginning stages of addressing the necessity of supplying clean water as one of the various methods for achieving a sustainable environment. At just thirty cents per bottle, Sur'Eau, a liquid chemical purifier deposited in water, provides families in Madagascar with a six month supply of clean drinking water. Sur'Eau's purpose extends far beyond providing clean drinking water. It also delivers clean water for bathing and sanitizing food. Additional methods of water purification are being undertaken in Ethiopia, as well, with farmers seeking access to clean water for crop irrigation. Large cement basins, constructed with simple drip irrigation systems, are being implemented in conjunction with instructional training, to endow Ethiopian farmers with a self-sufficient and enduring clean water resource. The simple techniques exhibited in Madagascar and Ethiopia are indicative of emerging trends that aid in sub-Saharan Africa's pursuit for an invariable supply of clean water.

    Progress in sub-Saharan Africa's water crisis is no longer imminent; it is now a constant presence that is yielding substantial results and increased benefits to all of the residents in its regions. Madagascar and Ethiopia provide glistening examples of what is rapidly becoming a rising movement in sub-Saharan Africa to regenerate its clean water resources. Although additional work remains to be accomplished in the western and northern regions of Africa, as well as the sub-Saharan region, the establishment of cement basins in Ethiopia and the implementation of Sur'Eau in Madagascar will continue to act as beacons for providing sub-Saharan Africa, and Africa as a whole, with one of the most basic necessities for a sustainable environment: clean water.

    Author's Statement: As a rising second year law student at Texas Southern University, I am interning at the World Information Transfer to gain exposure to how international policy and the creation of laws work together to be implemented in various nations across the world. ~Divai A. Brown

    Sources:

    www.usaid.gov (image)
    www.waterforthepoor.org;
    www.unep.org

    REFORMING ENERGY INDUSTRIALIZATION in DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
    By: Christopher Martini

    Western countries consume the majority of the world's energy resources, despite their small percentage of the global population, posing a significant threat to environmental stability. The United States, 5% of the world's population, is responsible for 23% of aggregate energy consumption, more than China and Russia combined. As developing nations pursue policies of industrialization and economic expansion, however, they are increasingly using more of the earth's natural resources to sustain growth, in pace with their growing populations. Reforming energy industrialization methods in developing countries is an international priority, as the future of our environment is endangered by their rate of energy consumption and population growth.

    Developed countries have the resources and technology to ease their addiction to depleting energy resources. Developing countries, however, are without the capital or ambition to regulate their energy usage and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Right now, environmental protection is simply not a priority in the developing world. In the Middle East, issues like suppressing civil war and nationalist sentiments are more transparent than reforming industrial policy. In China and India, issues like increasing population and economic stability take priority over issues of consumption and industrial production. Developing countries blame external factors and the historical culprits from the developed world for the global environmental burden. However, world carbon dioxide emissions are expected to increase by 1.9% by 2025, and most of that increase will occur in the developing world as environmentally hazardous resources fuel its economic revolution. The figure below shows that developing countries will become the largest producers of carbon emissions in the near future, surpassing the industrialized countries by 2018.



    Policy framework in developing countries has shifted to industrialization in order to sustain social development, increase the standard of living and compete on the international market. Mercantilist countries use industrial policies in order to develop sectors of their struggling economies. This leads to increased employment, domestic firms trading in foreign markets and an improvement in the balance of trade. The system inherently leads to international interdependency through trade and promotes peace. But the industrialization process involves steel, iron, rubber, plastics, aluminum and other raw materials that emit greenhouse gasses, utilize massive quantities of energy and contribute to environmental degradation.

    As populations soar in the industrializing world, a stable infrastructure is needed to support development. Beijing analysts expect that there will be 140 million vehicles on China's roads by 2020, increasing alongside population from 12 million vehicles in 2003. Road building degrades delicate ecosystems all over the world, and the construction itself requires carbon emission. Not to mention, motor vehicles are the single biggest source of atmospheric pollution on earth. China is one example; similar industrial policies are becoming the standard practice throughout the developing world. Reliance on fossil fuels and oil increases energy volatility in its depletion and weakens international diplomacy.

    In order to reverse the effects of industrialization on the environment, developing countries are seeking support from the industrialized world and allocating resources towards alternative forms of energy. China and India have already taken steps towards improving their policy by investing in the nuclear energy option. Financial support from the private sector and leading governments would catalyze progress in the earliest, most vulnerable, stages of development. By linking economic prosperity with environmental protection, the developing world will be able to play a significant role in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the reversal of climate change.

    Author Statement: I am a Senior International Relations Major at Lehigh University. I am particularly interested in humanitarian affairs, international political economics and environmental protection. My recent internship with World Information Transfer inspired my interest in the environment and the developing world, and my experience at the United Nations has taught me the importance of international diplomacy to achieve world health. ~Christopher Martini

    Sources:

    http://www.globalissues.org/energy/
    http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggccebro/chapter1.html
    http://www.worldcarfree.net/resources/stats.php

    AN INNOVATIVE RESPONSE TO ENERGY NEEDS
    By: Barnett Koven

    Anaerobic Digestion (AD) provides a viable source of alternative energy and addresses the need for an energy source which, unlike solar or wind power, is able to produce constant power on an extremely large scale. AD is a naturally occurring process that utilizes bacteria in the absence of air to break down biodegradable waste into nitrogen and phosphorus rich fertilizer and biogas composed primarily of methane. In an engineered or specially designed reactor, biogas production can be stimulated so that it becomes economically viable to utilize AD as an alternative source of energy.

    Currently, in Western Europe and Japan, large scale AD plants have been constructed and are now operational. These plants were designed for use with mesophilic bacteria. The use of a mesophilic bacteria strain (a group of anaerobic bacteria classified by their optimal operating temperature of between 65-80 degrees Fahrenheit, their low sensitivity to environmental changes, and their ability to break down biodegradable materials) results in low biogas production and is, therefore, used not for energy production, but rather for handling waste that would otherwise be destined for land fill or incineration. The use of thermophilic bacteria (a group of anaerobic bacteria known for heightened operating temperatures of between 152 degrees and 168 degrees Fahrenheit, high sensitivity to environmental conditions and their ability to break down biodegradable materials) results in not only decreased digestion times and a fertilizer that is classified Class A Pathogen Free by the US EPA, but also has a significantly increased biogas yield with a higher portion of methane gas.



    AD has the ability to supplant oil and other traditional fuel sources in an environmentally friendly manner despite the fact that there are some greenhouse gas emissions. The US EPA considers AD a carbon neutral energy source since the gases being released through the production of energy would otherwise be released as the waste materials rot in a landfill or are incinerated. In our current oil based energy economy, emissions are released from the burning of fossil fuels, and the disintegration of biodegradable waste in landfills. In an AD based energy economy, emissions from the burning of fossil fuels would be non-existent.

    Engineered AD, whether utilizing a mesophilic or thermophilic bacteria, breaks down biodegradable waste from any of a wide variety of waste sources from MSW (municipal solid waste) to manure. Waste is broken down through a three stage microbial process. The first stage, hydrolysis, uses extra cellular enzymes (or catalysts) to breakdown complex molecules into simpler sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids. The second step, acid fermentation, converts the acids and sugars created from hydrolysis into organic acids which then undergo methanogenesis which converts organic acids into methane, carbon dioxide and various trace gases.

    Anaerobic digestion using a thermophilic bacteria strain not only presents a viable source of alternative energy, but also should be available commercially within the near future. An experimental digester is currently in the first stages of operation and provides a wealth of information that will be crucial for the design of a commercial scale plant. Furthermore, AD is a cost effective source of power. A commercial unit would provide enough power for its own operation, plus provide a considerable excess of power, which could then be sold at a profit (many western governments require electrical utilities to provide a certain amount of renewable energy, thus commanding an above market price). Heat energy from the process can be used on sight to heat buildings or water. Additionally the high-grade fertilizer byproduct can be sold at a profit. One study demonstrated that a relatively small commercial reactor using thermophilic bacteria would produce a return on investment (ROI) just shy of 20%.

    Author Statement: I am an upcoming senior at Millburn High School in Millburn, New Jersey. I am interested in viable alternative energy sources, and I am a strong proponent of the use of AD technology, which I am currently researching and developing. - Barnett Koven

    Sources:

    http://www.epa.gov/OW-OWM.html/mtb/multi-stage.pdf
    http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/Ostrem_Thesis_final.pdf
    Koven, Barnett. Unpublished thesis 2006: "Engineered Anaerobic Digestion Utilizing a Thermophilic Media."

    THE GREEN APPLE
    By: Brianna Gillespie

    As pundits speculate whether New York City's Mayor Michael Bloomberg will begin a bid for the US presidency, many point to his new environmental plan as evidence of his expanding interests. Unveiled to the public on Earth Day 2007, the plan, dubbed PlaNYC, proposes 127 initiatives that aim at a more efficient use of natural resources. PlaNYC specifically targets a reduction of pollution in the land, water, and air. In addition, the plan also calls for a more sustainable and environmentally friendly public transportation system and a greater reliance on green energy.



    New York City's continued population growth, already at 8.2 million citizens, adds greater pressure on the city's aging infrastructure including demands for decent housing. Actively acknowledging this concern, PlaNYC proposes to double the amount of housing in New York City boroughs, with ninety-five percent of new homes built within walking distance to public transportation. The plan also calls for the restoration of 7600 acres of brownfields, including 300 acres to be made into public parks and recreation facilities. The mayor hopes that such green outdoor areas, in addition to improving the environment, will also help to combat rising obesity in the city. In addition to constructing more housing, the plan also calls for a ten billion dollar investment to update the sewage and drainage systems. This investment would also pay for repairs that have waited for decades.

    With an ever-expanding population, more people will be flooding the roadways and using public transportation in order to move throughout New York. PlaNYC also calls for an increase in public transportation. PlaNYC proposes that the entire fleet of New York City buses and taxis convert to hybrid models. Already, many of New York's new Municipal Transportation Authority (MTA) buses employ "clean air technology," reducing the amount of pollutants released into the air. Many cab companies are investing in hybrid models, taking advantage of tax breaks as well as reduced gas bills, while simultaneously benefiting the environment.
    Perhaps the most controversial of the initiatives proposed by Mayor Bloomberg is the eight-dollar congestion toll. This toll would charge drivers entering Manhattan south of 86th Street from 6am to 6 pm. The Mayor cites the successes of London and Singapore's congestion tax as evidence of the tax's potential. Major thoroughfares, like Franklin Delano Roosevelt Drive and the West Side Highway in addition to all bridges and tunnels, would remain exempt from this tax.

    Mayor Bloomberg is not only targeting the health of the environment with PlaNYC, he is also targeting the health of the community. Children in Brooklyn and the Bronx are hospitalized four times more frequently than the national average due to asthma related complications. Scientists cite the air pollution in the city as a contributing factor to childhood asthma. If implemented, Mayor Bloomberg's plan will aim to reduce forty percent of air born soot by the year 2030. This will include a reduction of seven million tons of carbon dioxide in the air, cutting the city's "carbon footprint" by 30%, in addition to preventing fifteen million metric tons of greenhouse gases from being released into the atmosphere.

    Cities around the world are already proposing plans similar to PlaNYC. Major cities, especially those with pollution problems such as Mexico City and Rome, are examining PlaNYC's potential. Congestion taxes are being considered in many major metropolitan areas. If successful, PlaNYC will not only improve New York's environment, but improve public health.

    Author's Statement: As a rising sophomore, studying Political Science and Middle Eastern Studies at Rutgers University, I find that environmental and public health issues are critical to our understanding of the world. The efforts undertaken by New York highlight the greater need to invest in alternative energy to meet the demands of a growing population. - Brianna Gillespie

    Sources:

    http://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/html/plan/land_brownfields.shtml
    http://www.knowledgeplex.org/news/367911.html
    http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/23/nyregion/23mayor.html?
    ex=1335153600&en=41b98690384893eb&ei=5124&partner=digg&exprod=digg

    HEALTH DISPARITIES in the PACIFIC ISLANDS: HEPATITIS B
    By: Alice Min

    An estimated one million people die each year from liver cancer or liver failure caused by hepatitis B. A viral disease, hepatitis B can be transmitted through blood and infected bodily fluids. Currently, two billion people worldwide are infected with hepatitis B. Of this number, 350 million are chronic hepatitis B virus carriers, and approximately 150 million are from the Pacific region. In fact, the Pacific Islands have one of world's highest hepatitis B incidence rates. In the United States, Pacific Islanders, in addition to Asian Americans, account for over half of the 1.3 million chronic hepatitis B cases and half of the deaths. Such health disparities are fostered not only by geographical barriers but also limited healthcare and other environmental factors.



    Spanning about five million square miles of ocean, the U.S.-associated Pacific Islands include Hawaii, American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), and the Republic of Palau. These islands have a total population of about 470,000, of which a significant fraction suffers third-world condition that leads to health problems. In Marshall Islands, for example, the rate of hepatitis B is 30 times higher than in the U.S. Transmission of hepatitis B in these islands occurs primarily during infancy from carrier mothers to their infants. In such areas, prenatal screening of pregnant women and hepatitis B vaccination of their infants are recommended to prevent the disease.

    However, prenatal screening in Pacific Islands has been impractical for many reasons. Thousands of miles of open water limit Pacific Islanders from advanced healthcare facilities. In addition, hepatitis B screening of all mothers and vaccination of infants are too costly for the island countries' evidently under-funded healthcare systems. Some islands not only lack a system of disease and risk behavior surveillance, but also doctors and equipment. Existing team of medical workers providing treatment and follow-up of mothers and infants are poorly coordinated. Most alarmingly, there is a lack of knowledge among these prenatal healthcare providers about the risks of perinatal transmission of hepatitis B and recommended screening and treatment procedures. The greatest problem, however, lies with the Pacific Islanders, who, because of lack of insurance and cultural barriers, do not seek Western healthcare.

    Transfusion of unscreened blood and blood products is another frequent route of hepatitis B infection. First, poor organization of blood supply systems - controlled by numerous players of government - poses a question to the quality of blood and blood products. Moreover, most hospital-based blood banks in the Pacific Islands have a low status, usually run by inappropriately trained laboratory technicians. In many of their rural areas, blood services do not even have full coverage of a blood unit. This means that due to lack of funding, there is a shortage of testing re-agents to screen for hepatitis B virus. As a result, blood transfusion sometimes takes place with untested blood posing a serious threat to hepatitis B incidence.

    Despite their numerous problems in their healthcare systems and an alarming incidence of hepatitis B, the Pacific Islanders, as a minority population, have long been neglected for extensive research. In the U.S., for example, it was not until in 2003 that Pacific Islanders were categorized discretely from Asian Americans for federal data collection practices. Some Pacific Islands communities even suffered exclusion and discrimination. Because Asian Americans, as an overall group, experience different health problems, health disparities among Pacific Islanders have been masked for years. Only a few data existed to identify specific problems and needs in the Pacific Islands. With improved data collection, the hidden problems were finally disclosed, and a worldwide effort to correct these problems was initiated.

    The U.S. has implemented Healthy People 2010, a set of national health objectives designed to promote health and prevent diseases. One of its main goals is to provide intervention programs to eliminate health disparities among minority populations while valuing cultural diversity. The World Health Organization (WHO), on the other hand, has been involved specifically in controlling hepatitis B. In 1991, WHO recommended that all countries add hepatitis B vaccine to their national immunization programs. According to WHO/UNICEF data, as of 2004, 152 of 192 member states (80%), including Pacific Island countries, added hepatitis B vaccination into their national agenda.

    While current efforts are helping, however, healthcare personnel and advocates in the Pacific Islands admit that more is needed. For example, by the end of 2004, less than half of the world's infants had received the required vaccinations. Also, many countries considered quality control of blood less a priority to under-resourced blood banks. The recent recognition of Pacific Islanders as distinct ethnic groups is merely a stepping-stone toward Pacific Islands' receiving greater global attention. Still today, these islands are in dire need for more research and funding to solve their urgent health problems.

    Author Statement: My name is Alice Min, and I am a junior at Wellesley College studying chemistry. I picked this topic because, as a pre-medicine student, I have a strong interest in global health problems. As a member of the Hepatitis B Initiative, a non-profit student run organization in Boston, I also wanted to explore not only the medical aspect but also the environmental/social factors that contribute to the disease.

    Sources:

    http://www.hepb.org/hepb/about_hepatitis_b.htm
    http://www.hepb.org/hepb/statistics.htm
    http://www.hepbinitiative.org/statistics.html
    http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/8DEABC76-85DA-4A47-A75D-FB9F5C85431B/0/RC5508.pdf
    http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/CEA43548-A375-42DA-96C4-EE37AA149FA7/0/RC5009.pdf
    http://www.path.org/vaccineresources/hepb.php
    http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/publications/cdnr/pdf/CDNRspring02.pdf
    http://www.healthypeople.gov/About/whatis.htm
    http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000036.htm
    http://www.asianweek.com/2001_07_20/bay2_pacificislndr_health.html
    Image: http://www.ehponline.org/docs/1997/105-9/focus-full.html

    ISSUES AFFECTING INDIGENOUS HEALTH
    By: Tikvah Betancourt

    Indigenous communities worldwide believe in the maintenance of the environment and their responsibility to sustain its resources for future generations. The lack of appropriate environmental health standards such as sanitary water, sewage and waste management, hygienic living space and food contribute to the deteriorating health of the indigenous populations. Insufficient funding by government agencies and exploitative corporate practices affect the implementation of adequate infrastructure, which would ensure suitable, sanitized environments improving the fragile health of indigenous populations.

    Harmful, development projects by government and corporate groups cause deforestation, dumping of toxins into water and soil, and the use of hazardous pesticides. Toxins enter the ecological system through the water and soil, which is absorbed by the animals and vegetation, and then digested by the indigenous people. Contaminated wastes and toxic insecticides containing Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), are linked to serious health affects on people and the environment. Contact with these chemicals can cause cancer, damage the nervous system, lead to reproductive disorders, and disrupt the immune system. In response to the increasing toxins and POPs, the Stockholm Convention, which took effect in May of 2002 in Sweden, enables governments to, "take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs in the environment".

    Indigenous autonomy over land and water is imperative for the health of the community. More than 80% of the world's biodiversity lies in the territories of indigenous populations. Privatization by the government and private corporations to acquire these resources results in the confiscation of territories and the re-allocation of water. This becomes problematic, limiting the indigenous communities' access to water and food. Deforestation and urbanization, as a result of land confiscation, aid in transmitting vector born diseases, such as malaria, spread rapidly by unhygienic environments. Due to the exploitative practices of privatization, many of the indigenous are forced to relocate to lands that are not as abundant in food resources as their original territories. Relocation is detrimental to indigenous people's quality of life, agriculture, and cultural beliefs.



    Aside from the lack of food, globalization leads to the proliferation of processed foods and industrializing agriculture. This trend can be seen in the rise of cases in diabetes and obesity among indigenous people. According to Dr. Anthony J. Hanley's, a member of the American Diabetes Association, type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) is the most prevalent disease among Native Americans and Aboriginal Canadians. The implications of the rise in diabetes cases include vascular complications, ligament amputations, blindness, renal disease, and heart failure. These complications consequentially lead to high mortality rates. Due to the rise in diabetes, there is a rising prevalence of obesity, attributing to indigenous mortality rates. According to the 2000, 2001, and 2003 Canadian Community Health Survey, Aboriginal men and women had the highest percentage of overweight and obesity cases, as defined by the Body Mass Index (BMI), in comparison to other ethnic groups in Australia.

    Primary prevention is seen as a solution towards dealing with indigenous health issues. In order to establish adequate clinical centers there need to be partnerships between the national governments and international agencies such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII), and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).Together these organizations can create policies and funding to implement sustainable and sufficient solutions.

    Solutions to indigenous health issues lie in the cooperation between international and governmental organizations. International policies need to reflect the needs of the indigenous people in order for them obtain adequate living standards that would better their health. International society may view the unique native populations the same as they view the Earth, invaluable and irreplaceable. Pre-emptive actions can be taken to guarantee the health and preservation of the unique indigenous people.

    Author Statement: As an active member in the Latin and Jewish community at Rutgers University I find it essential to preserve one's culture and identity through awareness and educating others. I feel that it is imperative to bring awareness about indigenous people's health issues in order to preserve their culture, health, and environment. ~ Tikvah Betancourt

    Sources:

    http://enhealth.nphp.gov.au/council/pubs/pdf/monograph1.pdf
    http://www.pops.int/
    http://www.ienearth.org/globalization.html
    http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/540921
    http://www.aboutaustralia.com/a2it_package/images/travel/Gold_Coast_Aboriginal_Dance_Group_Currumbin.jpg

    ARCTIC THAW
    By: Vikash Khanna

    One of the most pressing issues associated with global warming is the melting of our polar ice caps. A 10-year satellite-mapping study conducted by NASA scientists and published in the Journal of Glaciology confirmed that, on average, 20 billion net tons of ice melted into the oceans each year between 1992 and 2002, generating a significant rise in average sea level. Many in the general public believe that, within the Arctic Circle, mammals such as polar bears and walruses are the only ones currently being threatened by this trend. In actuality, the 4 million people who live in the circumpolar region are also starting to feel the effects.



    Across the northern Russian frontier, countless families are in serious jeopardy of being displaced due to sinking cities. In Vorkuta, a coal mining city in the Komi Republic, most of the buildings, factories and pipelines are built on tundra permafrost, which is comprised of frozen soil rather than hard rock. As the permafrost slowly but surely melts, the foundations of the city's infrastructure will inevitably crumble. Residents are seeing the effects within their own homes too, as walls and ceilings are prematurely cracking and getting disfigured. The situation is so bad that, instead of investing in necessary reconstructive engineering projects, the federal government wants the city's 100,000 citizens to pack their things and migrate southward.

    In Scandinavia, a severe economic dilemma looms due to Arctic thaw. The Lofoten Islands, an archipelago in the county of Nordland, Norway, have always depended on the Arcto-Norwegian cod stock for food. However, polar ice disintegration has opened the doors for the expansion of offshore oil drilling in the surrounding waters, thus pitting the fishing and oil industries against one another. Policies were put in place to protect the fishing industry through the end of this decade, but the future beyond that remains uncertain. As one local islander fisherman put it bleakly, "One oil spill would be the end of us."

    The Canadian province of Nunavut-home of Inuit country-is also facing a crisis due to changing ground conditions. Veteran Inuit hunters are finding it increasingly difficult to move around and hunt because of the slush and shifting ice floes. Snowmobiles and other land vehicles which used to facilitate travel over ice and snow no longer operate well. Many frustrated hunters have reported walking on snow-covered ice one minute and then plunging into snow-covered water the next. The extra water has, in some parts, been accompanied by more frequent and intense winds, which further exacerbate the problem.

    There is no question that Arctic thaw is an extremely serious phenomenon with far-reaching human effects in the present day. While there is not a great deal of media coverage, and while those further south are not fully aware of it, the world's northernmost communities are already adapting to a life of anxiety and sacrifices.

    Author's Statement: I am a rising junior at Cornell University. I chose this topic because of my deep interest and concern towards the human impact of Arctic thaw. - Vikash Khanna

    Sources:

    "The Big Melt: Old Ways of Life are Fading as the Arctic Thaws"
    http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/20/science/earth/20arctic.html?
    ex=1287460800&en=c8377d3324bb8b6b&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss
    "Arctic Rush" (Discovery Times Channel documentary)
    Picture: http://www.newscloud.com/image_files/story_14474.jpg

    INTERNATIONAL STANDARD VERSUS COUNTRY'S STANDARD on ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
    By: Josephine Au

    The United Nations moved Global Warming to the top of the agenda recently. One of the key issues plaguing negotiations is the flexibility of standards. Some delegations believe there should be an international standard on the environmental policy, while other delegations think that countries should monitor themselves. The idea of self-monitoring can be seen in relationship between China and Hong Kong, and their varying standards. The deviation between the environmental standards of Hong Kong and China causes palpable political tension.

    Hong Kong is a well-developed and energetic city. Previously under British rule, Hong Kong was transferred back to China in 1997. Although Hong Kong is a part of China, Hong Kong has a "one country, two systems" mechanism, allowing Hong Kong to maintain different rules, regulations, and a system of government. Hong Kong, therefore, has different environmental policies from China.



    The first typical example of differences in environmental policy is the Mai Po Marsh in Hong Kong. Mai Po is a lush wetland located between Shenzhen and Hong Kong. The marsh is an important wintering habitat for tens of thousands of water birds, including critically endangered species. Due to the rapid urbanization in southern China, more and more industrial and organic wastes are produced. These toxins are released into the Mai Po Marsh polluting the nature reserve and impacting migratory birds. In addition to industrial pollutants, untreated domestic sewage, and livestock waste, dumped in the Pearl River Delta and the Deep Bay, which flow in the marsh, endangers ecological balance in Mai Po Reserve.

    Air pollution, produced in China also poses a threat to Hong Kong as smog causes a reduction in visibility in the city. Between 1986 and 2004, the Reduced Visibility Rate rose 5.7% per decade; seven times higher than that of the previous period (1968-1986). Numerous studies suggested the rise in the number of foggy days in Hong Kong directly correlates to the trapping of air pollutants from the Pearl River Delta (PRD), which continue to escalate. The poor air quality in Hong Kong affects the tourist industry, health of the citizens, and living conditions. According to a survey conducted by Employment Conditions Abroad (ECA) International, in 2007 poor air quality diminished the competitiveness of Hong Kong compared to other Asian cities. The ECA, in a survey entitled "The Best Locations in the World to Live," ranks Hong Kong 23rd, while Singapore is rated in the top ten.

    Soil pollution in China, due to harmful industrial and farming practices, also affects Hong Kong. Although soil pollution is not a direct pollutant, it also causes harm to Hong Kong citizens through the food supply. Hong Kong is the financial center of Asia; therefore, there is a large population in the business sector. Poor performance in the agricultural sector causes the need for food, consumed in Hong Kong, to be imported from China. Soil contamination endangers the food supply in Hong Kong. Soil pollution in China is becoming more serious, thanks to lax environmental policy. In the January 2007, "Chinadialogue" reported that, "In some areas of China, soil already suffers from varying degrees of pollution… According to a scientific sampling, 150 million mu (100,000 square kilometers) of China's cultivated land have been polluted…. another 2 million mu (1,300 square kilometers) covered or destroyed by solid waste." According to this study one-tenth of the agricultural area of China is polluted and represents a threat not only to the environment but the ever increasing population of China. When crops absorb toxic substances form pesticides and heavy metals, humans consume those toxins, which can accumulate in our bodies. In addition, the number of food poisoning cases in China and Hong Kong continue to grow. This is a threatening sign for both the people and governments' China and Hong Kong.

    Although Hong Kong's environmental policy can meet existing international standards, the people of Hong Kong still suffer from the pollutants from China. The government of China is considering taking action by promoting greener initiatives.

    Author Statement: Environmental Sustainability is an urgent and essential topic in all over the world. As a student of Hong Kong majoring in Political Science and interning in World Information Transfer, it is golden opportunity to introduce the view of Hong Kong. ~ Josephine Au

    Sources:

    http://planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/40567/story.htm
    http://www.hko.gov.hk/publica/reprint/r626.pdf
    http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/724
    http://www.wwf.org.hk/eng/maipo/
    www.politicalinformation.net

    ACID RAIN IN PAKISTAN AND INDIA
    By: Nazish Rajput

    When one thinks of rain, it is not often that an image of damaging acid rain comes to mind. Although acid rain levels have decreased in many industrialized nations such as the United States and many parts of Europe, this environmental problem is spreading too many developing countries such as Pakistan and India. Particularly, a solution needs to be found which provides an alternative to fossil fuels, such as coal, that contribute to increasing incidences of acid rain.

    Initially, acid rain takes two forms: one that consists of wet deposition; and the second form as dry deposition. Wet deposition comes about when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, found in air fumes released through fossil fuel combustion, are incorporated into water molecules taking the shape of rain, mist, and snow. Dry deposition, however, occurs when chemicals carried hundreds of miles, due to winds, become a part of dust and smoke and fall to the ground. Even though dry forms of acidic chemicals are difficult to measure, the average pH for acid rain itself is about a 4.3. In comparison, pure water has a pH of 7.0 and normal rain, which is usually mixed with carbon dioxide, resulting in a pH of 5.3. One of the many harmful attributes of acid rain is that it feels and looks like normal rain.

    Currently, acid rain, which is a global issue, is prevalent in Pakistan and India. These countries commonly experience the effects of acid rain, partly because of the heavy influence of fossil fuels in their industrialized cities. Considering that both countries' economies are heavily dependent on agricultural produce, the scale of damage, which is possible to land crops and, thus, the overall economy, is quite enormous. For example, as energy requirements in India are growing rapidly in tune with the growing economy, coal dependence in the country is expected to grow threefold over the current level of consumption, making the clouds of acid rain heavier over many highly sensitive areas in the country like the northeast region, parts of Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal and coastal areas in the south. Already the soils of these areas have a low pH value, which acid rain will aggravate further by making them infertile and unsuitable for agriculture. Air and water quality in cities such as Karachi, Pakistan, which is one of the most populated in the world, is, also, deteriorating fast. Not only does the presence of fumes from the city of Karachi affect the individuals in the city causing many health problems, the fumes, particularly, SO2 are carried by wind to other parts of Pakistan. High levels of SO2 affect vulnerable agriculture resulting in fewer crops that can be harvested and sold.

    The problem lies in the fact that fossil fuels are a common source of energy for factories and motor vehicles because they are easily accessible and inexpensive. Due to this, alternative modes of energy are difficult to organize and lack participation in local communities. Yet, many individuals feel and see the health effects of acid rain as it is manifested in common allergies, lung diseases, eye infections, and mild to severe skin irritation.

    Currently, there are no treaties that bind all nations of the world to a certain reduction in air pollution and thus acid rain. One of the problems, which prevents a multinational treaty from taking hold, is the difficultly in pinpointing air pollutants to a certain location. For example, a large number of air pollutants found in India and Pakistan emerge from neighboring nations such as China, which also has a heavy dependency on oil and coal operated factories. Moreover, the United States, also, does not have a single treaty which takes into account the transboundry nature of rain and water. However, certain treaties such as the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution have been ratified by most European nations.

    The two leaves on the left are of an identical tree type. The first leaf demonstrates the change in pigmentation and breakage of needles due to acid rain. The second leaf has only experienced normal rain. Scientific data for all regions within Pakistan and India, so far points to a more serious ecological problem in the future.



    Author Statement: My name is Nazish Rajput, and I am a recent graduate from Rutgers University. My interest in this topic comes from my undergraduate degree, which focused on international politics and trade.

    Sources:

    http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/index.html
    http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/climate-atmosphere/feature-27.html
    http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/lrtap_h1.htm
    http://envis.tropmet.res.in/india.htm
    www.britannica.com/ebi/art-69717

    DARFUR: CRISIS in a VULNERABLE ENVIRONMENT
    By: Maria DeRiggi

    The conflict in Darfur, the region of western Sudan lying amidst the Sahel Desert, has ethnic and political components that are superimposed upon a local feud between pastoralists and farmers over the paucity of natural resources. The fighting, which according the United Nations, has claimed more than 200,000 lives and created refugees of 2.5million, is most often characterized as an ethnic conflict, pitting Arab militias against black farmers and rebels. Although the political factors involved must not be overlooked, what is occurring in Darfur may be linked more closely with environment than with ethnicity.

    The natural environment is central to the lives of Darfurians; it provides food, shelter, energy and livelihoods. Traditional systems of land management also determine cultural identity, which is central to the current situation. Experts say that Darfur's African farmers and tribes of mostly Arab nomads have long been competing for the region's meager natural resources. But over the last three decades, a combination of environmental and demographic pressures has heightened the conflict between the two groups.

    Darfur lies in a region that suffers and will continue to suffer significant impacts of climate change. It is a physically marginal area located in the center of a large continent, which reduces the stabilizing effect of sea currents on temperatures. In Darfur, the physical manifestations of climate change are exacerbated and compounded by social and economic vulnerabilities. The high dependence on environmental resources forces climatic vulnerability onto the entire economy.

    As the population in Darfur has increased, six fold in the past four decades to 6.5 million, the foundation of natural resources has eroded by unmanaged and intensified farming, grazing and deforestation and severe drought. The power of local traditional leaders, central to mitigating conflicts over land, pasture and water deteriorated as the strain on resources surpassed the point where tribes could manage it. Also in these decades, little investment came into the region, complicating the political scene and leading to a shortage of infrastructure to manage to needs of the increasing population and deteriorating environment.

    According to the US National Center for Atmospheric Research, annual rainfall has decreased by half since figures were first collected in 1917. In 2003, the year the large-scale conflict began; only 7.48 inches of rain fell on El Fasher, the capital of North Darfur. The UN University for Peace conference, "Environmental Degradation as a Cause of Conflict in Darfur" held in Khartoum in December 2004, described how increasing population densities in the decades preceding the current crisis, coupled with a decrease in rainfall and arable land, has put pressure on both sedentary and pastoralist livelihood systems and caused an intensification of cropping and grazing. As the Sahel Desert closed in, Arab nomads migrated farther south bringing with them their cattle into the farm lands of African villagers. When African tribes took up arms against Sudan's Arab dominated government, the Arabs in Darfur became easy allies with the government as they were already competing with the farmers for water.

    This chart from the British aid group, Tearfund, demonstrates the exponential growth in population in the three decades preceding the conflict, as well as the change in land use:



    The devastation in Darfur demonstrates the catastrophic effects climate change can have on societies across Africa and beyond. The UN estimates that the lives of as many as 90 million Africans could be at risk on account of global warming. Furthermore, climate change has been called a "threat multiplier" to already vulnerable nations. Many of Africa's conflicts can be attributed to the adverse effects of climate change and fleeting natural resources, lit by the spark of ancient rivalry. In Zimbabwe, relief agencies now say President Robert Mugabe's destructive rule is being usurped by an even greater calamity, a three-month drought that has destroyed the maize crop and exacerbated tension between the government and its allies and the opposition.

    This past April, British Foreign Secretary Margaret Beckett hosted the first-ever debate on climate change and armed conflict at the U.N. Security Council. "What makes wars start?" she posed, "Fights over water. Changing patterns of rainfall. Fights over food production, land use. There are few greater potential threats to our economies too...but also to peace and security itself."

    Author Statement: I am recent graduate of Brown University where I studied history and became very interested in humanitarian issues especially the crisis in Darfur when I took a class on modern genocide. I found it very interesting to learn about the often less emphasized environmental aspects to conflict - Maria DeRiggi

    Sources:

    www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/JHEN-66VP58?OpenDocument
    http://ochaonline.un.org/GetBin.asp?DocID=2179
    http://www.bmu.de/english/europe_and_environment/press_statements_speeches/doc/pdf/39088.pdf
    http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1615171,00.html
    http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&report_id=191&language_id=1
    www.unsudanig.org/darfurjam/DJAM/data/Environment_Pastoral/Darfur

    World Information Transfer Summer 2007 Interns


    From right to left:

    Bottom row: Brianna Gillespie, Divai Brown, Nazish Rajput.
    Middle row: Hillary Krieger, Addy Tang, Josephine Au, Barnett Koven, Tikvah Betancourt.
    Top row: Alice Min, Vikash Khanna, Christopher Martini, Maria DeRiggi.

    World Information Transfer, Inc
    475 Park Avenue South, 22nd Floor, New York, NY 10016
    (tel.) 212-686-1996, (fax) 212-686-2172
    email: wit@worldinfo.org
    internet: www.worldinfo.org